The position of women in society and social change

Introduction Many scholars view the world wars witnessed in the 20th century as agents of social change. This is because the wars supported egalitarianism in society where roles were distributed based on merit and expertise but not based on gender. The twentieth century period was an era of liberation to women since their rights were recognized in society. One scholar noted in 1942 that the achievements of women during the world wars would save them from being treated as homemakers, who were simply relegated to the domain of the home1.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The position of women in society and social change specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This paper will therefore try to relate the war, specifically the two world wars, to the position of women in society and social change. It can be observed that the war gave women some advantages in the international system as opposed to men. Women were allowed to joi n professions that were previously reserved for men due to one reason or another. The International System and the Role of Women The international system exists according to the Hobbestian state of nature. This is where only the strong states survive since life is short-lived, brutal and anarchic. In other words, there is no Leviathan in the international system. Women consider themselves weak because men use their physical strength to oppress them. Goldstein observes that women detest the postulations of the realist theory since the theory does not open the black box. Women believe that gender variations occur at an individual and group level. To feminists, the realist theory only considers the interaction of states but not units, which include women. Social change and communal awareness transpire mainly through scientific developments, class divergence, and political accomplishments. Every societal structure is situated within them and is exposed to the power of the state-class sy stem, a local milieu, and a global system of nations and economies2. The world-system viewpoint perceive nations and state-run financial systems as located within a global capitalist nexus, with a distribution of labor equivalent to its elements, that is, the center, the margin, and the semi-periphery.3 Consequently, no main social change takes place outside the global milieu. Therefore, to comprehend the positions and status of female members of society or adjustments to the structure of the family, for instance, it is essential to scrutinize the financial development and political transformation, which are influenced by local and universal developments. As it can be observed in various discussions concerning female’s employment, the structural factors related to class position, state lawful policy, developmental policy, and global market variations combine to configure the rapidity and tempo of women’s assimilation in the labor force and their access to financial cap ital. Some organizations and systems influence and are influenced by social changes in a Marxist-inspired world-system viewpoint.Advertising Looking for essay on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The organizations are entrenched within a class system, including the system of manufacturing, accretion, and surplus allocation. Furthermore, a variety of gender collections and customs such as approved positions of males and females through tradition or law, artistic comprehension of feminine and masculine abilities affect the position of women in society as regards to social change.4 In Britain, women had taken over jobs in various sectors by the end of 1914. Surprisingly, the war provided women with an opportunity to work in ammunition factories. More so, women volunteered to work in various humanitarian organizations such as the Red Cross. Through the war, women showed what they were capable of doing both at home an d in their places of work. What women delivered during the First World War changed the perception of many in society. The society appreciated the contribution of women yet it was reluctant to offer some privileges to them. For instance, women were paid almost equality as men since they received two-thirds of what men were paid. Unexpectedly, the state granted women the right to participate in political affairs. For that case, women were allowed to select candidates of their choice and were allowed to participate in elections fully. This meant that they could present their candidature during elections as long as they qualified. The investigation of gender regarding war entails an assessment of the standards, classifications, opportunities, postulations, and behaviors utilized differentially to males and females in the situation of conflict. States subsist in what is viewed as a bloodthirsty and unsafe global milieu. For this reason, states have always prioritized their national secur ities. Due to national security interests, huge military finances, martial recruitment of male populace, overseas incursions, and the limitation of public freedoms have been vindicated. Most people view the safety of the state as an essential value that should always be supported. This is particularly factual during war. The prerequisite of state security has always been and remains to be a male prefecture. Most women support what are believed to be lawful needs for state war, however the main aim of defining and protecting the sovereignty of the nation has been the duty of males, an undertaking that has seen men rewarded in various cultures. To surrender one’s life for one’s nation in warfare has been perceived as the premier type of loyalty, but a failure to battle is the sign of a coward or proof of biological or psychological sub-maleness.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The position of women in society and social change specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It should be noted that women have engaged in non-combatant wars and have succeeded in achieving their dreams. Such women include Elizabeth 1, Catherine the Great, Indra Gandhi and Margaret Thatcher. Despite of this, the role of women in war has always been overshadowed by the actions of men. In other places such as in the Hispanic military, women have participated in combatant battles. Unfortunately, the society perceives women as people who are always in need of protection. 5Jean Elshtain in her works ‘Women and War’, alleges that the role of women in society should be comprehended in relation to the actuality that war is presently institutionalized in the international system. Recently, scholars have noted that war affects men and women differently. This is due to the emergence of feminism theory, which tries to evaluate the position of women in society. The question has centered on the exact effects on fem ales that war demands since during war, gender distinctiveness happens to be polarized as militarism and maleness infuse throughout culture6. This is not to dispute the fact that pacifism as such is accredited to genetic tendency but that women are misrepresented in the decision-making, both in national and in the military sector. 7Caprioli has recommended that the relationship of women with peace is one that has occurred specifically due to their defused situation. There are various varieties of feminism and a collection of approaches as to how gender equality could be restored to the advantage of both men and women. Feminists concede that the gendering of societal life based on male-female dialectic generates prejudice that further leads to traditional blueprints. At the time of war, these may perhaps rematerialize in a destructive way and could be legitimately authorized. From the above analysis, various feminist organizations emerged in society to challenge their deprived positi on after the Second World War. Gender Roles in War Joshua Goldstein notes that the roles of women in conflicts have been greeted with variations among scholars of history and political science. In the western militaries for instance, Goldstein observes that the society has allowed women to join professions in the military that were reserved for men. In fact, women are considered soft sports since many illegal groups such as those in Rwanda and Burundi target them. Rape has been employed as a war instrument in many places such as Yugoslavia and Mexico. Goldstein does not engage in a debate as regards to the role of gender in war but instead he tries to differentiate between the interests of various feminist groups. He also observes the relationship between feminism and the realist theory, which is one of the most powerful theories in explaining the role of actors in the international system.Advertising Looking for essay on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to Goldstein, the major aim of feminism is liberation from the house of bondage. As stated by Goldstein, each category of feminism aims at liberating itself from certain injustices. In this case, liberal feminism aims at achieving egalitarianism between men and women in society. The feminists under this category argue that women have the right to participate in any activity including war. To them, this is achieved through legal and political reforms. This would not change societal structure. Radical feminism relates its problems to the capitalistic economy that is controlled by men. In this regard, such groups aim at revising the existing social structure. In relation to war, the crusaders under this category argue that war is a tool used by men to subjugate a perpetuate women. In many cases, warlords would target women since they are easy to defeat. Women would then be deprived economically since they do not have the power and the means to resist incursions. Conservative feminism tries to understand its surrounding. Libertarian feminism asserts that people are owners of their lives meaning that they have the power to determine their own destinies, including war decisions. Separatist feminism argues that women should concentrate on helping themselves meaning that heterosexual relationships are irrelevant to women. In this regard, women should engage in war to protect their fellow women8. In this line of thinking, women should always be involved in making critical foreign policies that would amount to war. Furthermore, economic determinism is an issue of concern to women. Women single out capitalism as being an impediment to their achievement in society. Capitalistic ideologies discriminate women from accessing resources in society. Socialist scholars differentiate themselves from Marxism by arguing that injustices can only be abolished through revising the social structure and having sound economic policies in society. Cultural feminist movement aims at ensuring women are self-sufficient and self-reliant. Towards the beginning of 1990s, a new wave of feminism emerged, which advocated for the rights and freedoms of adolescent females. The movement wanted the government to come up with policies that would protect young women from societal injustices such as rape and sexual harassment. In this case, young women had to be allowed to come up with make-ups of their choices including clothing and sexual allure. They were to be recruited in the disciplined forces in the same way as men. Goldstein underscores the fact that it is imperative to consider time, culture and country when understanding the activities of feminist organizations. Women started fighting for their rights during the 19th century in the US and UK. They were mostly focused on promoting equality, marriage rights, parenting and ownership of property. Towards the end, the movement shifted its attention to political power and authority. The movement wanted the state to al low all women to participate in elections. This meant that women were to be allowed to vote for candidates of their choice. Furthermore, women had to be allowed to contest for various positions during elections, as long as they qualified. Feminist groups advocated for abolition of slavery, which was seen as a road to elimination of male domination. In 1919, the constitution was amended to cater for the interests of women. The Nineteenth Amendment to the US constitution granted women the right to participate in political processes. After the achievement, women did not relax instead they took their struggle a notch higher by demanding for more powers and freedoms. The new wave was termed as the second wave of feminism. The second wave aimed at eliminating social injustices as opposed to political issues. In this case, women wanted to be provided with social services such as childcare services, proper housing, medical cover and free education. The third wave feminism begun in 1990. The feminism organizations at this time aimed at lobbying the government to implement policies contained in the second wave. Third wave feminism focused on micro-politics and universalizing feminism. In this case, it delinked feminism from white women and tried to understand it as a common problem to all women in the world. Third wave feminism understood the position of women in society through a post-structuralism perspective. The second wave applied the ideas of Marx, which are radical and unrelenting. The second wave feminist scholars argued that no social structure is maintained through oppressing and exploiting a section of its members. The movement aimed at generating a female dominated society. On the other hand, the third wave feminism observed that it is not easy to change a social structure. In this case, each person should be involved in the process of change. Achievements of Feminist Organizations after the Second World War Feminist groups managed to do away with various fo rms of discrimination against women after the Second World War. The government in the US decided to abolish laws that segregated society based on gender in 1960s, just after the Second World War. Through the activities of feminist groups, women were granted rights such as reproduction rights. This meant that women were allowed to determine their destinies as regards to pregnancies. The high court decided in the case involving Roe and Wade that women could abort pregnancies on grounds of health. Through this achievement, women took charge of families because they could seek for family planning contraceptives. Women were relieved from domestic chores meaning that some took over political positions. As a consequent, division of labor was also extended to women because some of them could be relied upon during policy formulation. In early 1990s, the UN charter was formulated to safeguard the interests of women in all parts of the world. Through the Convention on the Elimination of All Fo rms of Discrimination against Women, CEDAW, women’s rights were documented as international bill of rights that the state had to grant unconditionally. Through the feminist activities, language used in society was unbiased meaning that it was inclusive and non-sexist. This has greatly shaped women’s participation in global political processes including voting and government appointments. For instance, the word ‘Miss’ may perhaps be utilized to signify both married and unmarried women. Before the world wars, unmarried woman were not to be entrusted with leadership. This affected women before but it is no longer an issue in the contemporary world. In the religious front, women managed to convince the faithful that it was not God’s will for men to oppress women. In this regard, women should were allowed to participate in religious activities actively. Consequently, women were ordained as bishops in various denominations after the war, although some wer e still conservative such as catholic. Culturally, women managed to lobby the government to institute stricter laws that would cater for their rights. It was a criminal offence to engage a woman in sex without her consent after the Second World War in the US and UK. Criminals charged with forcible rape received severe punishments, a move that was aimed at discouraging the vice. Challenges of Feminism after the Second World Although women have managed to do away with problems affecting them, there are still some issues to deal with. The first one is related to labor market, which favors men in many ways. The government should come up with policies that aim at empowering women economically. Since the Civil War, women are still incorporated in the financial system as underdogs. Wealth lies in the hands of men implying that women are likened to the proletariat who produces goods that he or she does not consume. In most families, male partners are known to control political and economic affairs, which are more important in an individual’s life. At work places, women are forced to work and produce goods and services just like men. Women are further required to take care of homes. This is unfair because both partners must share domestic roles in case they both work. The government should therefore look for ways to eliminate this problem because it affects the productivity of women in society. It is factual that the US has more male senators and governors. This is because the government does not have a clear policy that empowers women politically. In this case, women should be funded by the state during campaigns in order to realize gender balance. Scholars concede that women should be empowered through management. In this case, bosses should aim at assisting women employees to realize their goals. The government should ensure that each organization conforms to the provision of the constitution, which states that each person should be allowed to exercise his or her democratic right without interference from anybody. Empowerment of women is inevitable in case millennium development goals are to be realized in the country. Poverty cannot be eradicated in case women are left behind in development9. Conclusion It can be concluded that women have never enjoyed their rights in political history. Their rights and freedoms are usually hampered by factors such as religion, male patriarchy, social structure and culture. After the Second World War, the society witnessed the potentials of women. At this time, various feminine groups emerged, with each advocating for diverse rights. The modern day activism is realistic in that it focuses on achieving equality but not domination. The feminist groups have achieved many objectives and goals such as abolition of sexist language, revising the social structure and participating in political processes. List of References Caprioli, M 1995, â€Å"Primed for Violence: The Role of Gender Inequality in Predictin g Internal Conflict†, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 49, no. 2. Carver, T 1995, Gender is not a Synonym for Women, Lynne Rienner, Boulder. Elshtain, J 1996, Women and War, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Enloe, C 2000, Manoeuvres: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives, University of California Press, Berkeley. Goldstein, J 2001, War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Hansen, L 2001, â€Å"Gender, Nation, Rape: Bosnia and the Construction of Security†, International Feminist Journal of Politics, Vol. 3, no. 1. Shaw, M 1988, Dialectics of War, Pluto, London. Summerfield, P 1984, Women Workers in the Second World War: Production and Patriarchy in Conflict, Croom Helm, London. Footnotes 1Summerfield, P 1984, Women Workers in the Second World War: Production and Patriarchy in Conflict, Croom Helm, London. 2 Hansen, L 2001, Gender, Nation, Rape: Bosnia and the Construction of Security, International Feminist Journal of Politics, Vol. 3, no. 1. 3 Shaw, M 1988, Dialectics of War, Pluto, London. 4 Caprioli, M 1995, â€Å"Primed for Violence: The Role of Gender Inequality in Predicting Internal Conflict†, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 49, no. 2. 5Elshtain, J 1996, Women and War, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 6 Enloe, C 2000, Manoeuvres: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives, University of California Press, Berkeley. 7Caprioli, M 1995, â€Å"Primed for Violence: The Role of Gender Inequality in Predicting Internal Conflict†, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 49, no. 2. 8 Goldstein, J 2001, War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 9 Carver, T 1995, Gender is not a Synonym for Women, Lynne Rienner, Boulder. 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Physician Assisted Suicide and American Federalism essays

Physician Assisted Suicide and American Federalism essays According to Brian Bix, law is most often considered with deciding who gets to decide cases. In Americas political system, this question is often distinguished. Much controversy and debate is focused on federalism. At what level should decisions be made, (individual, municipal, state or federal) and which sort of government should decide? This question of who decides is called federalism. The United States is a federal community with powers separated between the federal government and other governments below the federal government, in example, the states. Americas federalist system has valid, yet controversial policies for the way issues are considered in the country. Physician-assisted suicide is just one of them (1). According to Kathryn Tucker, attorney for the respondents in the Washington vs. Glucksberg case, this case presents the question, whether the 14th Amendments guarantee of liberty protects the decision of mentally competent terminally ill adults to bring about impending death in a certain, humane, and dignified matter? (2) It also asks the question, whether a state denies equal protection when it permits terminally ill patients equal protection when it permits terminally ill patients who are on life support to a humane death with medical assistance but prohibits terminally ill patients who are not on life support to exercising the same right by self-administering medication prescribed for that purpose? (Tucker 2) Does the Supreme Court have the powers delegated to them in the United States Constitution to agree or disagree with this issue or is this a case where it is left up to the state to decide? No, they do not. The Court uses the Commerce Clause to show that this case is a federalist issue, but it does not withhold the issues to which the decision is based on. Washington vs. Glucksberg is a judicial case where the court considered the constitutionality of Washington&ap...

How to Turn Down a Job Offer with Professionalism

How to Turn Down a Job Offer with Professionalism When you’re on the job hunt, your focus is so fully on getting to that job offer: all of your energy goes into making yourself into the ideal candidate, and making sure that the hiring manager knows how very ideal you are. But what happens if you get to that point and the job just isn’t right for you? 1. Reasons to Turn Down a Job Offer2. When to Turn Down a Job Offer3. How to Turn Down   a Job Offer4. What Not to Do When You Turn Down a Job OfferReasons to Turn Down   a Job Offer1. You couldn’t come to an agreement on compensation.Sometimes, negotiation just doesn’t go the way you want it to go, and you just can’t compromise any further.2. The job wasn’t what you thought it would be when you applied.Maybe that 40s:â€Å"I don’t think this job is the best fit for me right now.†Ã¢â‚¬Å"I’ve decided to accept another offer.† If you do this, you don’t need to say where, but it would be helpful for the compan y to know if their top candidates are bailing because other places are offering more comprehensive benefits, better hours, etc. No matter what, be diplomatic.Reiteration of appreciationRemember, you want the company to feel like you’re the one that got away, not the close call they had with a monster.Nice closingThe same kind of closing you use for any standard business communication applies here. Regards, best wishes, thanks again, sincerely, and similar ones all work. No melodrama, just easy and respectful closure.Here’s a sample offer rejection letter you can use for reference if you find yourself in this position.Dear Scooter,Thank you very much for offering me the position of Senior Swamp Correspondent. After careful deliberation, I’ve decided to accept another position that’s more in line with my experience and my goals. I really appreciate your time and consideration, though, as well as the chance to meet your excellent colleagues Fozzie and Gonzo. I know your team will continue to achieve great things in TV production, and I look forward to hearing about your continued success.Best wishes, KermitThere are also other examples and templates online that you can use, like here and here. The most important thing is to write what feels right for you- it should be in your voice, but if you find yourself at a loss for what to say, you can stick to these guidelines and dash off a perfectly nice rejection note.The level of formality may vary, depending on a) how formal the company is (which you’ll have a sense of from your interview and interactions with the company), and b) how well you know the person receiving the note. Err on the side of formality, but if a textbook form letter just doesn’t feel right, just make sure to hit the six points above, and keep the tone light and professional.What NOT to Do When You Turn Down a Job OfferWhile you’re crafting your â€Å"it’s not you, it’s me† note , there are some pitfalls to keep in mind as well. Don’t even consider the following:Using powerfully negative words like â€Å"reject.†It just sounds harsh, so†¦find a nicer way to phrase things, like, â€Å"opting to pursue other opportunities† or â€Å"will not be able to accept your offer at this time.†Taking a hostile tone.If you didn’t get along with anyone along the way, or discovered that you really don’t like the company, this is not the place to vent that. No sarcasm, snide remarks, or profanity.Posting about it on social media.It’s just poor form†¦and if you put a company on blast after they offer you a job, you could do some heavy damage to your own reputation.Talking smack about the company or anyone you spoke to throughout the process.If you met with someone really obnoxious during your interview process, now is not the time to talk about it. If you have any grievances, same deal. Just be thankful you got away unscathed, and be nice as you’re walking out the door.You’re breaking off a potential relationship here, but instead of disappearing into the comfortable anonymity of a dating app, you’re talking to people in an industry where you (presumably) want to keep working. You have to acknowledge the offer and also that you will not be accepting it. It’s not that hard, I promise! The awkwardness and unpleasantness that would result from just ignoring an open offer (and potentially wasting the time of someone following up on it) are just not the way to conduct yourself in a professional way.With these tools, you’re ready to take the difficult step of cutting loose from the hiring process. It can be a difficult decision, but again- if the job isn’t right for you or you have better opportunities, there’s no need to draw it out. Be quick, be nice, and be firm†¦and you’re out and ready to move on to the next opportunity.

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 8

Marketing - Essay Example As such, marketing opens a wide vista of opportunities for buyers and sellers where needs are created and later satisfied by the promised product. In the contemporary environment of advancing technology and globalization marketing requires creative input to gain competitive advantage. Wilson and Gilligan, (2003: 4) assert that ‘marketing is increasingly being conceptualized as an organizational philosophy or ‘an approach to doing business’. The changing social structure and technology has significantly influenced the consumer buying behavior that has been empowered with wide source of informed choices through internet and computers. The expectations of consumers from the product and services have been redefined to encompass important issues like environment conservation, socially responsible behavior etc. Hence, marketing has become key element of organizational success. The various imperative of market strategies like brand creation, market segmentation, advertise ments etc are important issues which help to credibility and awareness regarding products and services. Marketing helps to develop committed database of customers whose changing preferences are met through customization of products and services that meet their requirements. (words: 258) Reference Kotler, P., et al. Marketing, 7th ed. Australia: Pearson Education Australia, 2007. Wilson, R. and Gilligan, C.

Central Bank Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Central Bank - Term Paper Example The highly potential and naturally gifted part of the world does not have any central bank. Here in this essay a suitable structure for the proposed central bank will be provided in detailed fashion. The study will also analyze the point of similarities and dissimilarities between the proposed central bank of GCC and European central bank. The essay will also incorporate various arguments for supporting and opposing the proposed central bank. It means the essay will follow a critical analysis. The study will describe the various functions and objectives of the proposed central bank in GCC region. The essay will encourage significant detailed analysis in every section of the essay. The essay will follow a step by step approach which will be highly suitable with the topic of the study. At the end of the essay a suitable conclusion will be drawn. The first step after the decision to form a central bank is taken is to decide on the organizational structure of the central bank. To decide on the proposed structure of the new central bank the organization structure of the central bank of the member nations of the GCC can be taken as an example. If we look at the structure of the central bank of other banks belonging to some member nations of GCC, we find that the central banks of different countries follow central organization structure. All the organizations are headed by board of directors. Under the board of directors come the governor and deputy governor. The deputy governor is helped in his duties by a team of directors who look after different functions and departments of the bank. The figure below shows the structure of the central bank of Qatar as a particular example. While designing the structure of the central bank for the GCC the structure of ECB can serve as a good model. ECB as an organization is made up of three major decision making bodies 1. Governing council: The apex decision making

†REFLECTION Monitoring and Ensuring Quality Care

– REFLECTION Monitoring and Ensuring Quality Care Introduction The purpose of this paper is to reflect on a recent personal experience of patient care, which enabled me to achieve a module 9 competency, Actively seeks to extend own knowledge. I will be critically analyzing one nursing practice incident using Boud, et al (1985) model of reflection, (please see appendix 1) which will enable me to monitor and ensure quality patient care in future practice. The nursing incident happened when I was looking after a patient requiring enteral tube feeding (ETF). It is important to note that all confidential information relating to patients, wards, hospitals and professional colleagues has not been included in this paper to ensure ethical practice and adherence to the NMC code of professional conduct, section 5 which affirms that I must guard against breaches of confidentiality (NMC 2008). Reflection is a useful tool for the continuation of professional development among nurses (Somerville and Keeling 2004). The word reflection originates from the verb reflectere which means to bend or turn backwards (Hancock 1998). It is a tool, which unlike text books and videos, does not have a limited shelf-life, it is cost effective, is portable and can be used world wide. Patient Profile The aspect of nursing care I have chosen to reflect on is the care of a patient who required enteral tube feeding (ETF) due to dysphagia a condition in which the action of swallowing is difficult to perform (Unison Health Care 1998). This nursing intervention was essential for a patient in my care, who I shall call John. Please see appendix 2 for Johns past medical history. The Plan of Treatment for John John was admitted to my area of practice six days ago following his CVA. He is receiving ETF via an NG tube as an immediate intervention and is being assessed to see if he is a suitable candidate for a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) tube which are used as a more permanent form of enteral tube feeding (Holmes 2004). The nasogastric tube is about 22 inches [55.9cm] in length (Holmes 2004) and was inserted into his left nostril down through the pharynx, through the oesophagus and through the cardiac sphincter muscle and into the stomach (Marieb 2001). Food can be administered through the tube directly into the stomach and the swallowing process does not need to take place. The food is administered by a pump that controls the amount of feed given in mls per hour. This description could sound as though ETF is always safe and effective and has no complications. Elia (2001) affirms that ETF is typically safe and easy to administer. However John did experience a number of difficul ties that could have been rectified sooner than they were. On reflection of Johns care it is clear to see (with the benefit of hindsight) that if Johns care was managed differently and if complications were noticed and acted on promptly, his hospital experience could have been very different. 1.) Returning to the experience Problems John faced. John experienced two main complications as a result of ETF. The first was regurgitation of the feed into his throat and mouth and the second was diarrhoea. The rate of the feed had been increased over a period of days to its optimal rate, following the ETF guidelines provided by the NHS trust that I was working in. The infusion was commenced during the night while he was sleeping to allow John greater freedom during the day as he could be disconnected from the pump. The regurgitation happened during the first night that the pump was running at the optimal flow rate. Davis and Shere (1994) report that regurgitation is a common complication of ETF. As a consequence, John had to swallow what had come up into his mouth. The rationale for John to undergo enteral tube feeding was to prevent further weight loss and aspiration which can be caused by dysphagia (DeLegge 1995, Gibbon 2002 and Davies 1999). Aspiration has various meanings, however in this context it refers to the movement of for eign material i.e. fluids or food, into the trachea and further down into the lungs (Unison Health Care 1998). This can occur when the swallowing mechanism is ineffective or impaired. Infection of the lobe of the lung, in which the foreign material has lodged, occurs. This is called aspiration pneumonia (Unison Health Care 1998). Patients suffering from dysphagia are at risk of developing aspiration pneumonia (DeLegge 1995 and Gibbon 2002). ETF was commenced to overcome this risk but now the very intervention that was intended to eliminate the risk has caused an even greater risk of aspiration pneumonia. According to Marieb (2001) there are two stages of deglutition (swallowing). The buccal phase, which is a voluntary action, occurs in the mouth and is the first phase of deglutition. The tongue progressively elevates anteriorly to posteriorly, propelling the bolus through the oral cavity. When the bolus has moved to the base of the tongue, the soft palate is raised, preventing food from being regurgitated via the nasal passage (Davies 1999). The second is the involuntary pharyngeal-oesophageal phase which Davies (1999) describes as a complex sequence of muscular movements. After a CVA the ability to initiate the secondary phase of deglutition can be disrupted resulting in ineffective or complete failure of this phase of deglutition. This short explanation of pathophysiology demonstrates how important it is to know nursing rationales for nursing interventions. Patients suffering from dysphagia can sometimes overcome the problem by eating a pureed diet and drinking thickened fluids, but this depends on the severity of the dysphagia (Stringer 1999). John needs ETF because his dysphagia is too advanced to be overcome by a change in diet. Arrowsmith (1993) recommends that patients who are receiving ETF via a NG tube that are lying in bed, should have their head and shoulders elevated 30-40 degrees during feeding and up to one hour afterwards to minimise gastric pooling and reflux of the feed. This example demonstrates how a simple action can make a substantial impact on the quality of care that they experience. It has the twofold purpose of Impact of the quality of care that they experience. It has twofold purpose of promoting the effectiveness of the intervention and minimises harm to the patient by reducing the risk of aspiration pneumonia. Assessing for signs of aspiration in a patient suffering from dysphagia should always be taken seriously by nursing staff. Stringer (1999) reports that if dysphagia is serious enough it can prevent the victim from swallowing their own saliva. The average person swallows approximately 590 times each day 146 when eating, 394 when awake and not eating and 50 times during sleep (Davies 1999). With the average person swallowing literally hundreds of times each day, patients are at risk of aspirating (on their own saliva) regardless of ETF. Barer (1989) found that over one third of conscious acute stroke patients admitted to hospital had unsafe swallowing. Davies (1999) citing Ellul and Barer (1994) affirms that dysphagia in the first three days after stroke is associated with a five to tenfold increased risk of chest infection during the first week. This is due to varying degrees of aspiration. Aspiration is a potentially fatal complication of ETF. John also experienced three episodes of diarrhoea since starting ETF. John was only provided with a commode which was only dealing with the symptoms rather than treating the cause. No contact was made with the senior house officer or dietician. Furthermore there did not appear to be much concern among the nursing team and there was no discussion or sharing of knowledge between colleagues accept what came from myself. I told my mentor what I had been reading during my reflection time and pointed out some reasons that have been identified as causing diarrhoea for patients receiving ETF. The attitude of my mentor was apathetic, and commented, Hes bound to pick up a bug, give it time, it will pass. This shocked me as Somerville and Keeling (2004) reports that the nursing profession depends on a culture of mutual support, and this was not what I received from my mentor. I wanted to discuss the temperature of the feed, his current medication and the cleanliness in which the feed was prepared and administered. If the feed is too cold when it is administered it can cause diarrhoea (Arrowsmith 2003). Howell (2002) reports that diarrhoea can be the result of ETF but it can also be due to the side effects of medications. Antibiotics can cause the common side affect of diarrhoea (BMA 2001) but John was not receiving any. Diarrhoea in ETF can also be caused through the introduction of bacteria through poor hygiene standards in the preparation and administration of the feed; however the preparation and administration does not need to be performed aspptically. This is only indicated if the patient is immunocompromised (Arrowsmith 1993). My professional knowledge reminded me that I could not dismiss the diarrhoea as a coincidence. If there were nursing interventions that could be used and I didnt use them, I would be failing to provide quality care for my patient. Nurses are responsible not only for their actions but also for their omissions (NMC 2008). I wanted to refer to each others professional knowledge through discussion, and to the ETF guidelines to see if there was a simple cause to the problem that could be rectified before consultation with the doctor or dietician became necessary. I was able to rule out most factors that can cause diarrhoea. This led me to believe that the infusion rate could be too fast. These are the factors that I wanted to discuss with my mentor so I could contact the dietician to seek help from the multidisciplinary team. Gibbon (2002) asserts that stroke care requires the services of a multi-professional te am, working towards an agreed therapeutic plan hence my reason to collaborate with the dietician. 2.) Attending to feelings What did I feel was Positive? During reflection time I was very interested and pleased to find this research to suggest that there could be something that I could do to put an end to the discomfort, distress and potentially disastrous complications of a patient in my care. Many times as a student I have felt that I personally, am not making a great difference to my patients health and wellbeing as I am not working independently, but under my mentor who in general decides on a course of action for our patients. This time I have found the answer from my own research. All that remains is for me to bring this research to my mentors attention and then put the intervention into practice. The patient will benefit, and I will have a great sense of achievement as I will have, in a small way, improved the quality of someones life, accomplishing one of the reasons why I decided to take a career in nursing. Attending to feelings What did I feel was Negative? In response to the apathy that I encountered, I felt disappointed and powerless and undervalued. My original mentor was off on temporary short term sickness due to a small operation and therefore I was allocated another Junior Ward Sister to take her place for the short period of time in her absence. I felt disappointed because my contribution to the care of my patient was not welcomed and that this mentor was not as patient or interested in my learning and on-going development. I also thought it was unfair because I had evidence to base my suggestions on. It was not a vague idea I had conceived but it was grounded in research. I felt powerless because as a junior and inexperienced member of the team I felt I had little influence over the overwhelming hierarchy. Morris (2004) states that student nurses possess little power because they are viewed as inexperienced. I wanted to make my mentor realise that the patient could be suffering (from diarrhoea and regurgitation) because of our negligence and not from inevitable causes. Why was Cognitive Learning Being Achieved? In this situation I was learning a number of things, mainly relating to communication, team work, assertiveness, accountability and responsibility. I learned that my priority is with the care of my patient and not with my popularity among colleagues, just as the NMC (2008) signifies when it states when facing professional dilemmas, your first consideration in all activities must be in the interests and safety of patients. When I met with my original mentor on her return back to work we discussed this incident of practice and she praised my efforts in extending my knowledge to improve patients care. I therefore achieved the competency, actively seeks to extend own knowledge. Do Any Barriers to Learning Exist? The barriers that existed to my learning were the apathy of the nurses and the limits of my own assertiveness. It was very hard on this ward to feel proud of the care that was being given. The ward was poorly staffed, the ward manager was unanimously unpopular, the ward relied heavily on agency staff that was not familiar with the ward and my temporary mentor wanted to leave nursing because of all of the above (and more). As a new and enthusiastic team member I found my self fighting against the low morale and low motivation of the current staff. Job satisfaction can impact on the care that nurses provide. Brown (1995) believes that when nurses enjoy good job satisfaction they provide a higher standard of care to their patients. Rohrlach (1998) and Govier (1999) cited by Kitson (2003) discovered that nurses who were happy with the care they were giving were more likely to stay within the clinical area which would in turn provide some stability and security within the workplace. Accor ding to this research, the inability to give quality care (due to the problems mentioned) was resulting in low morale. The dilemma I faced was as follows. I had already approached my mentor once regarding Johns problems and detected that there was little interest in what I had to offer and in the nurses willingness to correct any problems. If I addressed the issue again, I risked worsening the relationship between my mentor and myself. Morris (2004) identifies that student nurses often feel nervous about speaking out because they feel the need to conform or do not wish to be viewed in a negative way. Student nurses risk upsetting the status quo by speaking out. If I left the issue my patient may be suffering discomfort unnecessarily, but as a student I will never be held accountable in a way that registered nurses midwives or health visitors are (NMC 2008). Would this justify me leaving the issues and conforming to the apathy and bad practice of my mentor? Morris (2004) disagrees. She says that although students are not legally accountable for their actions and omissions, they are morally responsible for ensuring that patients are receiving good standards of care. The student nurse must be responsible. Semple and Cable (2003) affirm that responsibility is concerned with answering for what you do. Registered nurses, midwifes and health visitors are accountable which, Semple and Cable (2003) defines as being answerable for the consequences of what you do. 3.) Re-evaluating the Experience Drawing Conclusions Drawing conclusions is the most vital part of the process of reflection. It will shape future practice and quality of care. Conclusions that are drawn from reflection must agree with the Nursing and Midwifery Council code of professional conduct. It is with the NMC that all matters of conduct, practice and attitude are dictated to nurses. The NMC (2008) motto, protecting the public through professional standards can only be achieved if all those on the NMC register are willing to submit to the conditions and regulations that it upholds. Indeed Somerville and Keeling (2004) affirm that in order for nurses to meet the demands of the NMC, they must focus on their knowledge skills and behaviour which can be achieved through reflection. On reflection of the described incident, it was difficult to know what to do. My mentor was not up to date with the knowledge of this area of practice. I cannot, and do not expect her to know everything, however Glover (1999) points out the nurses should be reliant on others for information. The NMC (2008) states that nurses should work cooperatively within teams and respect the skills, expertise and contributions of colleagues, treating them fairly and without discrimination. Therefore I expected my temporary mentor to take more interest in what I had to offer. Indeed Morris (2004) argues that qualified nurses are obliged to listen to other staff regardless of their qualification status. Announcing that practice should be in accordance with the NMC is too simplistic an answer to such a diverse problem. It is correct to say this but how will this be achieved? The ward is in need of good clinical leadership, first of all from the sister in charge. Nadeem (2002) states that the call for good leadership in the NHS has reintroduced the matron figure and also the new role of nurse consultants. Specialist nurses do have a role in ensuring safe practice and quality care but this should be in addition to effective local leadership i.e. leadership from the ward sister. Leadership is perceived as being good if there is good team working and if managers have good relationships with staff (Lipley 2003) which is one area that needs consideration in this scenario. Meeting the staffs needs improves satisfaction, productivity and efficiency (Nadeem 2002) which in this instance principally means the provision of resources, i.e. human resources. Nurses who are happy with the care they give are more likely to stay within their clinical area (Rohrlach 1998 and Govier 1999 cited by Kitson 2003). This would provide some stability and security in the workplace. Clinical governance has also come to play a prominent role in ensuring quality care. The government has defined clinical governance as a framework through which NHS organisations are accountable for continuously improving the quality of their services and safeguarding standards of care, by creating an environment in which excellence in clinical care will flourish (Department of Health 1998). It had been noted that unacceptable variations in clinical practice where becoming common in the NHS (Department of Health 2010). While some patients were receiving excellent health care, e.g. in stroke care, other patients in the country were receiving sub-optimal stroke care due to differences in facilities, funding, education and staff. Each clinical area can improve the quality of care by (1) using modern matrons and nu rse consultants as clinical leaders, (2) by having adequate staff to care effectively and to lift morale among existing staff and (3) by implementing clinical governance which will result in the flourishing of good practices across wards, departments and NHS trusts through the sharing of expertise, research and ideas. The wards problems could also be addressed through annual reviews or by encouraging staff to keep an up-to-date portfolio (Somerville and Keeling 2004). This will allow nurses to identify strengths and opportunities for development. Critically analysing using reflection on this incident has been valuable in maintaining the quality of care as set out in the NMC code of professional conduct. Gallacher (2004) says that she questions different peoples practices in order to provide her patients with first class quality care. Clinical practice will not improve if it remains unquestioned. Hindsight gives the practitioner the opportunity to discriminate between good and bad practices. Safe, legal and quality care can only be given if it is in keeping with the NMC code of professional conduct. Reference list Arrowsmith, H. (1993) Nursing Management of Patients Receiving a Nasogastric Feed. In: British Journal of Nursing. 2 (21) 1053-1058 Barer, D. (1989) The Natural History and Functional Consequences of Dysphagia after Hemispheric Stroke. In: Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 52, 236-241 BMA (2008) New Guide to Medicines and Drugs. London: British Medical Association. Brown, R. (1995) Education for Specialist and Advanced Practice. In: British Journal of Nursing. 4 (5) 266-268 Department of Health (1998) First Class Service: Quality in the New NHS. London: The Stationery Office. Davies, S. (1999) Dysphagia in Acute Strokes. In: Nursing Standard. 13 (30) 49-55 Davis, J. Shere, K. (1994) Applied Nutrition and Diet Therapy for Nurses. 2nd Ed. Philadelphia: PA,WB Saunders. DeLegge, M. (1995) Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrojejunostomy: A Dual Centre Safety and Efficacy Trial. In: Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. 19 (3) 239-243 Gallacher, G. (2004) Gaining a Better Understanding of Reflection to Improve Practice. In: Nursing Times. 100 (23) 39 Gibbon, B. (2002) Rehabilitation Following Stroke. In: Nursing Standard. 16 (29) 47-52 Glover, D. (1999) Accountability. In: Nursing Times Clinical Monograph. 27, 1-11 Elia, M. (2001) Trends in Artificial Nutrition Support in the UK during 1996-2000. Maidenhead: BAPEN. Hancock, P. (1998) Reflective Practice using a Learning Journal. In: Nursing Standard. 13 (17) 36-39 Holmes, S. (2004) Enteral Feeding and Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy. In: Nursing Standard. 18 (20) 41-43 Howell, M. (2002) Do Nurses know enough about Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy? In: Nursing times. 98 (17) 40-42 Hutton C (2005) After a stroke: 300 tips for making life easier, London.UK Kitson, J. (2003) Education for High Dependency Nursing. In: Paediatric Nursing. 15 (1) 7-10 Lipley, N. (2003) Research Shows Benefits of Nurse Leadership Training. In: Nursing Management. 10 (2) 4-5 Marieb, E.N. (2001) Human Anatomy and Physiology. 5th Ed. United States of America: Benjamin Cummings. Morris, R. (2004) Speak out or Shut up? Accountability and the Student Nurse. In: Paediatric Nursing. 16 (6) 20-22 Nadeem, M. (2002) Evolution of Leadership in Nursing. In: Nursing Management. 9 (7) 20-5 Nursing and Midwifery Code of Professional Conduct. London: Nursing Council (2008) and Midwifery Council. Nursing and Midwifery An NMC Guide for Student of Nursing and Council (2008) Midwifery. London: Nursing and Midwifery Council. Semple, M. Cable, S. (2008) The new Code of Professional Conduct. In: Nursing Standard. 17 (23) 40-48 Somerville, D. Keeling, J. (2004) A Practical Approach to Promote Reflective Practice within Nursing. In: Nursing Times. 100 (12) 42-45 Stephanie K, Daniels, Maggie Lee Huckabee (2008) Dysphagia following stroke (clinical dysphagia) London. Stringer, S. (1999) Managing Dysphagia in Palliative Care. In: Professional Nurse. 14 (7) 489-492 Appendix 1 Three stages to the process of reflection. Boud, Keough and Walker (1985). a) Returning to experience Observations what happened? What was my reaction? Clarify personal perceptions b) Attending to feelings What did I feel at the time? What did I feel was positive? Why is cognitive learning being achieved? What did I feel was negative? Do any barriers to learning exist? Raise awareness and clarify feelings c) Re-evaluating the experience Draw conclusions and insights together with existing knowledge Identify gaps in knowledge Integrate existing and new knowledge

Monopoly, perfect competition and imperfect competition Essay

?Economists assume that there are a number of different buyers and sellers in the marketplace. This means that we have competition in the market, which allows price to change in response to changes in supply and demand. Furthermore, for almost every product there are substitutes, so if one product becomes too expensive, a buyer can choose a cheaper substitute instead. In a market with many buyers and sellers, both the consumer and the supplier have equal ability to influence price. In some industries, there are no substitutes and there is no competition. In a market that has only one or few suppliers of a good or service, the producer(s) can control price, meaning that a consumer does not have choice, cannot maximize his or her total utility and has have very little influence over the price of goods. A monopoly is a market structure in which there is only one producer/seller for a product. In other words, the single business is the industry. Entry into such a market is restricted due to high costs or other impediments, which may be economic, social or political. For instance, a government can create a monopoly over an industry that it wants to control, such as electricity. Another reason for the barriers against entry into a monopolistic industry is that oftentimes, one entity has the exclusive rights to a natural resource. For example, in Saudi Arabia the government has sole control over the oil industry. A monopoly may also form when a company has a copyright or patent that prevents others from entering the market. Pfizer, for instance, had a patent on Viagra. In an oligopoly, there are only a few firms that make up an industry. This select group of firms has control over the price and, like a monopoly, an oligopoly has high barriers to entry. The products that the oligopolistic firms produce are often nearly identical and, therefore, the companies, which are competing for market share, are interdependent as a result of market forces. Assume, for example, that an economy needs only 100 widgets. Company X produces 50 widgets and its competitor, Company Y, produces the other 50. The prices of the two brands will be interdependent and, therefore, similar. So, if Company X starts selling the widgets at a lower price, it will get a greater market share, thereby forcing Company Y to lower its prices as well. There are two extreme forms of market structure: monopoly and, its opposite, perfect competition. Perfect competition is characterized by many buyers and sellers, many products that are similar in nature and, as a result, many substitutes. Perfect competition means there are few, if any, barriers to entry for new companies, and prices are determined by supply and demand. Thus, producers in a perfectly competitive market are subject to the prices determined by the market and do not have any leverage. For example, in a perfectly competitive market, should a single firm decide to increase its selling price of a good, the consumers can just turn to the nearest competitor for a better price, causing any firm that increases its prices to lose market share and profits. Perfect competition is the market in which there is a large number of buyers and sellers. The goods sold in this market are identical. A single price prevails in the market. On the other hand monopoly is a type of imperfect market. The number of sellers is one but the number of buyers is many. A monopolist is a price-maker. In fact monopoly is the opposite of perfect competition. Firm under perfect competition and the firm under monopoly are similar as the aim of both the seller is to maximise profit and to minimise loss. The equilibrium position followed by both the monopoly and perfect competition is MR = MC. Despite there similarities, these two forms of market organization differ from each other in respect of price-cost-output. There are many points of difference which are noted below. (1) Under perfect competition there are a large number of buyers and sellers in the market competing with each other. The price fixed by the industry is accepted by all the firms operating in the market. As against this under monopoly, there is only one single seller but a large number of buyers. The distinction between, firm and industry disappears under this type of market situation. (2) The average revenue curves under competition and monopoly take different shapes. The average revenue (price) curve under perfect competition is a horizontal straight line parallel to OX-axis. The industry demand curve or revenue curve slopes downward from left to right. But under monopoly the firm is itself the industry. There is only one demand curve common both to the monopoly firm and monopoly firm and monopoly industry. The average revenue curve under monopoly slopes downward and its corresponding marginal revenue curve lie below the average revenue curve. Under perfect competition MR Curve is the same as AR Curve. (3) Under perfect competition price equals marginal cost at the equilibrium output, but under monopoly equilibrium price is greater than marginal cost. Under perfect competition marginal revenue is the same as average revenue at all levels of output. Thus at the equilibrium position under perfect competition marginal cost not only equals marginal revenue but also average revenue. On the other hand under monopoly both the AR and MR curve slope downward and MR curve lies below AR curve. Thus average revenue is greater than marginal revenue at all levels of output. Hence at the equilibrium output of the monopolist price stands higher than marginal cost. Under competition price MR=MC. In monopoly equilibrium, price > MC. (4) A competitive firm makes only normal profit in the long run. As against this a monopolist can make super normal profits even in the long run. In perfectly competitive market there is freedom pf entry and exit. Attracted by the supernormal profit earned by the existing firms the new competitive firms enter the market to compete away the supernormal profit. Output rises and profit becomes minimum. Thus in the long run a competitive firm earns only normal profit. But under monopoly the firm continues earning supernormal profits even in the long run since there are strong barriers to the entry of new firms in the monopolistic industry. (5) Under monopoly price is higher and output smaller than under perfect competition. Price output equilibrium is graphically shown in the diagram given below. AR = MR curve is the demand curve under perfect competition which is horizontal straight line. The downward sloping AR and MR curve are the average revenue and marginal revenue curves under monopoly. At equilibrium point E (MR = MC) a competitive firm produces ‘OM’ output at OP market price. At point F a monopoly firm attains equilibrium producing OM, output at OP, price. OP competitive price is less than OP, (OP < OP,) and OM competitive output is greater than OM, output (OM > OM,). (6) A monopolist can discriminate prices for his product, a firm working under perfect competition cannot. The monopolist will be increasing his total profit by price discrimination if he find? Elastic ties of demand are different in different markets. As against his a competitive firm cannot change different prices from different buyers since he faces a perfectly elastic demand at the going market price. If he increases a slights rise in price he will lose the sellers and makes loss. Thus a competitive firm can not discriminate prices which a monopolist can do. Monopoly and perfect competition represent two extremes along a continuum of market structures. At the one extreme is perfect competition, representing the ultimate of efficiency achieved by an industry that has extensive competition and no market control. Monopoly, at the other extreme, represents the ultimate of inefficiency brought about by the total lack of competition and extensive market control. Monopoly is a market structure with complete market control. As the only seller in the market, a monopoly controls the supply-side of the market. Perfect competition, in contrast, is a market structure in which each firmhas absolutely no market control. No firm in perfect competition can influence the market price in any way. The best way to compare monopoly and perfect competition is the four characteristics of perfect competition: (1) large number of relatively small firms, (2) identical product, (3) freedom of entry and exit, and (4) perfect knowledge. Number of Firms: Perfect competition is an industry comprised of a large number of small firms, each of which is a price taker with no market control. Monopoly is an industry comprised of a single firm, which is a price maker with total market control. Phil the zucchini grower is one of gadzillions of zucchini growers. Feet-First Pharmaceutical is the only firm that sells Amblathan-Plus, a drug that cures the deadly (but hypothetical) foot ailment known as amblathanitis. Available Substitutes: Every firm in a perfectly competitive industry produces exactly the same product as every other firm. An infinite number of perfect substitutes are available. A monopoly firm produces a unique product that has no close substitutes and is unlike any other product. Gadzillions of firms grow zucchinis, each of which is a perfect substitute for the zucchinis grown by Phil the zucchini grower. There are no substitutes for Amblathan-Plus. Feet-First Pharmaceutical is the only supplier. Resource Mobility: Perfectly competitive firms have complete freedom to enter the industry or exit the industry. There are no barriers. A monopoly firm often achieves monopoly status because the entry of potential competitors is prevented. Anyone can grow zucchinis. All they need is a plot of land and a few seeds. Feet-First Pharmaceutical holds the patents on Amblathan-Plus. No other firm can enter the market. Information: Each firm in a perfectly competitive industry possesses the same information about prices and production techniques as every other firm. A monopoly firm, in contrast, often has information unknown to others. Everyone knows how to grow zucchinis (or can easily find out how). Feet-First Pharmaceutical has a secret formula used in the production of Amblathan-Plus. This information is not available to anyone else. The consequence of these differences include: First, the demand curve for a perfectly competitive firm is perfectly elastic and the demand curve for a monopoly firm is THE market demand, which is negatively-sloped according to the law of demand. A perfectly competitive firm is thus a price taker and a monopoly is a price maker. Phil must sell his zucchinis at the going market price. It he does not like the price, then he does not sell zucchinis. Feet-First Pharmaceutical can adjust the price of Amblathan-Plus, either higher or lower, and so doing it can control the quantity sold. Second, the monopoly firm charges a higher price and produces less output than would be achieved with a perfectly competitive market. In particular, the monopoly price is not equal to marginal cost, which means a monopoly does not efficiently allocate resources. Although Feet-First Pharmaceutical charges several dollars per ounce of Amblathan-Plus, the cost of producing each ounce is substantially less. Phil, in contrast, just about breaks even on each zucchini sold. Third, while an economic profit is NOT guaranteed for any firm, a monopoly is more likely to receive economic profit than a perfectly competitive firm. In fact, a perfectly competitive firm IS guaranteed to earn nothing but a normal profit in the long run. The same cannot be said for monopoly. The price of zucchinis is so close to the cost of production, Phil never earns much profit. If the price is relatively high, other zucchini producers quickly flood the market, eliminating any profit. In contrast, Feet-First Pharmaceutical has been able to maintain a price above production cost for several years, with a handsome profit perpetually paid to the company shareholders year after year. Fourth, the positively-sloped marginal cost curve for each perfectly competitive firm is its supply curve. This ensures that the supply curve for a perfectly competitive market is also positively sloped. The marginal cost curve for a monopoly is NOT, repeat NOT, the firm’s supply curve. There is NO positively-sloped supply curve for a market controlled by a monopoly. A monopoly might produce a larger quantity if the price is higher, in accordance with the law of supply, or it might not. If the price of zucchinis rises, then Phil can afford to grow more. If the price falls, then he is forced to grow less. Marginal cost dictates what Phil can produce and supply. Feet-First Pharmaceutical, in comparison, often sells a larger quantity of Amblathan-Plus as the price falls, because they face decreasing average cost with larger scale production. MONOPOLY, CHARACTERISTICS: The four key characteristics of monopoly are: (1) a single firm selling all output in a market, (2) a unique product, (3) restrictions on entry into and exit out of the industry, and more often than not (4) specialized information aboutproduction techniques unavailable to other potential producers. These four characteristics mean that a monopoly has extensive (boarding on complete) market control. Monopoly controls the selling side of the market. If anyone seeks to acquire the production sold by the monopoly, then they must buy from the monopoly. This means that the demand curve facing the monopoly is the market demand curve. They are one and the same. The characteristics of monopoly are in direct contrast to those of perfect competition. A perfectly competitive industry has a large number of relatively small firms, each producing identical products. Firms can freely move into and out of the industry and share the same information about prices and production techniques. A monopolized industry, however, tends to fall far short of each perfectly competitive characteristic. There is one firm, not a lot of small firms. There is only one firm in the market because there are no close substitutes, let alone identical products produced by other firms. A monopoly often owes its monopoly status to the fact that other potential producers are prevented from entering the market. No freedom of entry here. Neither is there perfect information. A monopoly firm often has specialized information, such as patents or copyrights, that are not available to other potential producers. Single Supplier The essence of a monopoly is a market controlled by a single seller. The â€Å"mono† part of monopoly means single. This â€Å"mono† term is also the source of such words as monarch–a single ruler; monochrome–a single color; monk–a solitary religious figure; monocle–an eyeglass for one eye; and monolith–a single large stone. The â€Å"poly† part of monopoly means to sell. So the word itself, monopoly, means a single seller. The single seller, of course, is a direct contrast to perfect competition, which has a large number of sellers. In fact, perfect competition could be renamed multipoly or manypoly, to contrast it with monopoly. The most important aspect of being a single seller is that the monopoly seller IS the market. The market demand for a good IS the demand for the output produced by the monopoly. This makes monopoly a price maker, rather than a price taker. A hypothetical example that can be used to illustrate the features of a monopoly is Feet-First Pharmaceutical. This firm owns the patent to Amblathan-Plus, the only cure for the deadly (but hypothetical) foot ailment known as amblathanitis. As the only producer of Amblathan-Plus, Feet-First Pharmaceutical is a monopoly with extensive market control. The market demand for Amblathan-Plus is THE demand for Amblathan-Plus sold by Feet-First Pharmaceutical. Unique Product To be the only seller of a product, however, a monopoly must have a unique product. Phil the zucchini grower is the only producer of Phil’s zucchinis. The problem for Phil, however, is that gadzillions of other firms sell zucchinis that are indistinguishable from those sold by Phil. Amblathan-Plus, in contrast, is a unique product. There are no close substitutes. Feet-First Pharmaceutical holds the exclusive patent on Amblathan-Plus. No other firm has the legal authority to produced Amblathan-Plus. And even if they had the legal authority, the secret formula for producing Amblathan-Plus is sealed away in an airtight vault deep inside the fortified Feet-First Pharmaceutical headquarters. Of course, other medications exist that might alleviate some of the symptoms of amblathanitis. One ointment temporarily reduces the swelling. Another powder relieves the redness. But nothing else exists to cure amblathanitis completely. A few highly imperfect substitutes exists. But there are no close substitutes for Amblathan-Plus. Feet-First Pharmaceutical has a monopoly because it is the ONLY seller of a UNIQUE product. Barriers to Entry and Exit A monopoly is generally assured of being the ONLY firm in a market because of assorted barriers to entry. Some of the key barriers to entry are: (1) government license or franchise, (2) resource ownership, (3) patents and copyrights, (4) high start-up cost, and (5) decreasingaverage total cost. Feet-First Pharmaceutical has a few these barriers working in its favor. It has, for example, an exclusive patent on Amblathan-Plus. The government has decreed that Feet-First Pharmaceutical, and only Feet-First Pharmaceutical, has the legal authority to produce and sell Amblathan-Plus. Moreover, the secret ingredient used to produce Amblathan-Plus is obtained from a rare, genetically enhanced, eucalyptus tree grown only on a Brazilian plantation owned by Feet-First Pharmaceutical. Even if another firm knew how to produce Amblathan and had the legal authority to do so, they would lack access to this essential ingredient. A monopoly might also face barriers to exiting a market. If government deems that the product provided by the monopoly is essential for well-being of the public, then the monopoly might be prevented from leaving the market. Feet-First Pharmaceutical, for example, cannot simply cease the production of Amblathan-Plus. It is essential to the health and welfare of the public. This barrier to exit is most often applied to public utilities, such as electricity companies, natural gas distribution companies, local telephone companies, and garbage collection companies. These are often deemed essential services that cannot be discontinued without permission from a government regulation authority. Specialized Information Monopoly is commonly characterized by control of information or production technology not available to others. This specialized information often comes in the form of legally-established patents, copyrights, or trademarks. While these create legal barriers to entry they also indicate that information is not perfectly shared by all. The AT&T telephone monopoly of the late 1800s and early 1900s was largely due to the telephone patent. Pharmaceutical companies, like the hypothetical Feet-First Pharmaceutical, regularly monopolize the market for a specific drug by virtue of a patent. In addition, a monopoly firm might know something or have a piece of information that is not available to others. This â€Å"something† may or may not be patented or copyrighted. It could be a secret recipe or formula. Perhaps it is a unique method of production. One example of specialized information is the special, secret formula for producing Amblathan-Plus that is sealed away in an airtight vault deep inside the fortified Feet-First Pharmaceutical headquarters. No one else has this information. Competition is very common and often times very aggressive in a free market place where a large number of buyers and sellers interact with one another. Economic theory describes a number of market competitive structures that takes into account the differences in the number of buyers, sellers, products sold, and prices charged. There are two extreme forms of market competitive conditions; namely, perfectly competitive and imperfectly competitive. The following article provides a clear overview of each type of market competitive structures and provides an explanation of how they are different to one another. What is Perfect Competition? Perfect competition is where the sellers within a market place do not have any distinct advantage over the other sellers since they sell a homogeneous product at similar prices. There are many buyers and sellers, and since the products are very similar in nature there is little competition as the buyer’s needs could be satisfied by the products sold by any seller in the market place. Since there are a large number of sellers each seller will have smaller market share, and it is impossible for one or few sellers to dominate in such a market structure. Perfectly competitive market places also have very low barriers to entry; any seller can enter the market place and start selling the product. Prices are determined by the forces of demand and supply and, therefore, all sellers must conform to a similar price level. Any company that increases the price over competitors will lose market share since the buyer can easily switch to the competitor’s product. What is Imperfect Competition? Imperfect competition as the word suggests is a market structure in which the conditions for perfect competition are not satisfied. This refers to a number of extreme market conditions including monopoly, oligopoly, monopsony, oligopsony and monopolistic competition. Oligopoly refers to a market structure in which a small number of sellers compete with each other and offer a similar product to a large number of buyers. Since the products are so similar in nature, there is intense competition among market players, and high barriers to entry since most new firms may not have the capital, technology to startup. A monopoly is where one firm will control the entire market place, and will hold 100% market share. The firm in a monopoly market will have control over the product, price, features, etc. Such firms usually hold a patented product, proprietary knowledge/technology or holds access to a single important resource. Monospsony is where there are many sellers in the market with just one buyer and oligopsony is where there are a large number of sellers and a small number of buyers. Monopolistic competition is where 2 firms within a market place sell differentiated products that cannot be used as substitutes to each other. Perfect vs Imperfect Competition. Perfect and Imperfectly competitive markets are very different to one another in terms of the different market conditions that need to be satisfied. The main difference is that, in a perfectly competitive market place, the competitive conditions are much less intense, than any other form of imperfect competition. Furthermore, a perfectly competitive market structure is healthier as buyers have enough options to select from and aren’t, therefore, pressured to purchase one / few products and sellers are able to enter/exit as they please, which is opposite to most market conditions within an imperfectly competitive market place. Summary †¢ There are two extreme forms of market competitive conditions; namely, perfectly competitive and imperfectly competitive. †¢ Perfect competition is where the sellers within a market place do not have any distinct advantage over the other sellers since they sell a homogeneous product at similar prices. †¢ Imperfect competition as the word suggests is a market structure in which the conditions for perfect competition are not satisfied. This refers to a number of extreme market conditions including monopoly, oligopoly, monopsony, oligopsony and monopolistic competition. Perfect and monopolistic competitions are both forms of market situations that describe the levels of competition within a market structure. Perfect competition and monopolistic competition are different to each other in that they describe completely different market scenarios that involve differences in prices, levels of competition, number of market players and types of goods sold. The article gives a clear outline of what each type of competition means to market players and consumers and shows their distinct differences. What is Perfect Competition? A market with perfect competition is where there are a very large number of buyers and sellers who are buying and selling an identical product. Since the product is identical in all its features, the price charged by all sellers is a uniform price. Economic theory describes market players in a perfect competition market as not being large enough by themselves to be able to become a market leader or to set prices. Since the products sold and prices set are identical, there are no barriers to entry or exit within such a market place. The existence of such perfect markets are quite rare in the real world, and the perfectly competitive marketplace is a formation of economic theory to help better understand other forms of market competition such as monopolistic and oligopolistic. What is Monopolistic Competition? A monopolistic market is one where there are a large number of buyers but a very few number of sellers. The players in these types of markets sell goods which are different to each other and, therefore, are able to charge different prices depending on the value of the product that is offered to the market. In a monopolistic competition situation, since there are only a few number of sellers, one larger seller controls the market, and therefore, has control over prices, quality and product features. However, such a monopoly is said to last only within the short run, as such market power tends to disappear in the long run as new firms enter the market creating a need for cheaper products. What is the difference between Perfect Competition and Monopolistic Competition? Perfect and monopolistic competition marketplaces have similar objectives of trading which is maximizing profitability and avoid making losses. However, the market dynamics between these two forms of markets are quite distinct. Monopolistic competition describes an imperfect market structure quite opposite to perfect competition. Perfect competition explains an economic theory of a marketplace which does not happen to exist in reality. Summary: Perfect Competition vs Monopolistic Competition Perfect and monopolistic competitions are both forms of market situations that describe the levels of competition within a market structure. A market with perfect competition is where there are a very large number of buyers and sellers who are buying and selling an identical product. A monopolistic market is one where there are a large number of buyers but a very few number of sellers. The players in these types of markets sell goods which are different to each other, and therefore, are able to charge different prices. Monopolistic competition describes an imperfect market structure quite opposite to perfect competition. Perfect competition explains an economic theory of a marketplace which does not happen to exist in reality.